Mummification (Research Papre)

Essay:

For a long time, people were used to think that after death, their bodies would be sent to another life. Therefore, the idea of keeping people as they were alive is very old from about 4,000 years ago. Mummification is a way to keep dead people’s bodies with the same structure for a long time. In addition, the ancient Egyptians were famous in this field because their way of mummifying is still considered a mystery until now for scientists. Furthermore, many people ask themselves some questions about mummification all the time after they heard or knew about it; what is the purpose of mummifying people? In addition, what kind of materials did the ancient Egyptians use to mummify their dead people and remain until now with little change in their structure? Moreover, what is the process of mummification? Also, what kind of knowledge they had and we do not have now? After those questions, the ancient Egyptians mummified their dead people because of their belief of afterlife and they used lot of materials that they utilized to mummify their deceased, such as natron, linen, oil and tar.

In ancient Egypt, people had a religious belief that the body after death would be sent to the afterlife. They thought that the deceased had to be in good condition to travel to the afterlife and arrive safely to meet God. In addition, they had to ensure that the body should be as the same as the original structure as possible or at least close to the original. Therefore, they came up with the idea of mummification in order to preserve their bodies. After that, they started to prepare the deceased to meet their God by mummifying them. Nevertheless, not all the dead people were mummified with the complex way that ancient Egyptians were famous for. Because the rich people had the big opportunity to meet God, they were put in tombs after their death. In addition, their thinking was that rich people were going to serve God better than poor people. On the other hand, poor people or people who did not have money to provide for themselves or for their relatives tombs to be put in, were buried in the desert. As a result, those people who were buried in the desert, their opportunity to meet their God in the afterlife was very low.

Ancient Egyptians used lots of materials that existed in their time and were considered a mystery for a long time. On of the materials is the brown resin, which was used in the embalming process. “The brown embalming resin also contains sesquiterpenoid components, which are normally found in a fluid known as 'cedar oil'. This oil is prepared by extraction with organic solvents of wood from Cedrus atlantica” (Koller, Baumer, Kaup, Schmid & Wese, a 2003, pp. 4). Moreover, they used natron, which is a natural salt that used to dry out dead bodies and internal organs in the mummification process, and some scientists name it sodium salt. Besides natron, they used liquid tar, which was put on the surface of the body in order to protect the skin from decomposing. “In the mummification process sodium salts were successfully used for dehydration of the soft tissues. Tar products of plant origin and resin of pistachio were known to seal the surface of mummified bones and to minimize possible microbial attacks on functionally active alkaline phosphatase” (Koller, Baumer, Kaup, Schmid & Wese, b, 2003, pp.9). Also, they utilized linen, which used especially to wrap the body.

The process of mummification, which would take 70 days, included two steps; the first was the embalming and the second was the wrapping. The initial step was taking the deceased to be embalmed in an especial tent where all the embalmers were ready. The first part to be removed was the brain. Because Egyptians thought that the heart is where people use for thinking, they thought that the brain was not important and they had to get rid of it. They inserted a hook through the nose to the brain and smash it. After that, the brain would be pulled out through the nose. The next step was removing the internal organs, which were the liver, the lungs, the stomach and the intestines. The embalmers had to make an aperture to pull the organs. Then they washed the body with palm oil. After that, they had to fill the body with linen in order to not lose its original shape or structure. Drying the body was the next step, which would be done by covering the whole body with the natron. This step would take approximately 40 days. The second step of mummification was wrapping of the body. The body would be covered with oils. Then it would be wrapped with linen and each finger and toe should be covered individually. After that the priests’ turn would come. The priest put amulets to protect the deceased in its journey to God and they would finish the mummification process by praying to the deceased. (The British Museum, 1999)

To sum up, mummification is a way to preserve the body from the damage that could happen to it during the time and the weather. Ancient Egyptians were well known in this field because of their experiences in medicine. This process was ambiguous for scientists for a long time and even now they do not know how the Egyptians mummified those people and their body was stable for thousands of years. The ancient Egyptians mummified their dead people because of their religious belief about the afterlife and they had to meet God without any differences in their body’s structure between before they died and after. In addition, to do this operation, they utilized lots of materials such as resin, tar and natron that was used for drying the body and some oils. The mummification process was completed in two parts. The first one was embalming and the second part was wrapping. In the embalming part, they removed most of the internal organs such as the brain. Therefore, the brain was just a waste of space. Then they dried the body with natron by covering it with the natron for 40 days. Moreover, in the second part of mummification, the wrapped the body with linen and they would finish the mummification with praying for the deceased.

Recourses:

1-    Koller. J, Baumer. U, Kaup. Y, Schmid. M & Wese. U. a (2003, October). Ancient materials: Analysis of a pharaonic embalming tar. Nature, p. 425. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v425/n6960/full/425784a.html#B3

2-    Koller. J, Baumer. U, Kaup. Y, Schmid. M & Wese. U. b (2003, March). Borate in mummification salts and bones from Pharaonic Egypt. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0162013403000023#toc13

3-    The British Museum, (1999). Mummification. Retrieved from

http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/mummies/story/main.html

Single-Sex Schools

                Nowadays, education is the first thing that all parents wish for their children to get. Because people want to teach their children, schools have been founded. There are two types of schools; single-sex schools and mixed schools. Many people send their children to single-sex schools while most of them send their children to mixed schools. Even though boys and girls benefit from being taught in one school, it is better to be taught separately for three reasons; women especially benefit from being taught with their own sex, the distraction that will happen with the two genders and the problems that occur in the mixed schools.

            The initial reason is girls get benefits from being taught separately. There is a research that demonstrates that girls in schools are more creative than when they are with boys in the same class. Furthermore, girls being together participate in class more than if they are with boys because sometimes they are afraid of boys to laugh at them if they make mistakes. In addition, when girls study with their own gender, they are more likely to develop themselves. Moreover, children from age 7 to 15 years cooperate with students who are from their own sex. Therefore, it is easier to provide a good environment for each gender which is also better for teachers to deal with one gender of students. However, many people argue that the separation of boys from girls in schools has an impact on the students. By being together, they can get benefits from each other. Thus, when they will be in a group, for instance, they will integrate their ideas to one creative idea which is resulted from both of boys’ and girls’ thoughts. Nevertheless, because boys have different interests from girls, it is hard to cooperate most of the time. So, it is much better to separate them than mix them.   

            The second reason is the distractions that will happen between boys and girls when they reach a certain age. It is a natural thing that boys attract girls; also, girls attract boys. In the adolescence age, students’ sexual emotions start to develop and that will make a distraction for their education because all boys and girls think about attracting the other gender. “Too much time can be spent attempting to impress or even sexually harassing each other (particularly boys toward girls).” (Jones, 2000) Therefore, this will not let the boys concentrate on their study. Moreover, the temperature will play another role in the class. Researches determine that girls are more active in the classroom if the class’ temperature is warm; whereas, boys are more active in the classroom if the class’ temperature is cold. In other words, men’s bodies burn huge amounts of calories than women. Thus, men require a cold atmosphere to work. There will be a distraction between boys and girls in the classroom because each gender wants the class’ temperature according to his or her body to concentrate on the class. Many people assert that students when they are being taught together reveal their own abilities in their study because it will be a sex competition between students in order to convince the other that their gender is the best. As a result, this way will produce sensitivities, which lead to other problems between students to their rival from the opposite gender. To prevent the problems that will occur, each gender should be taught with their own sex.

             The last reason is the problems that occur in the mixed schools. The mixed schools especially the schools that have students from 15 to 18 years old have a common problem that is students have sex in schools because of their instincts. Therefore, there are a lot of pregnancy cases that result from the mixed school. After that, these girls will have social problems with their family. “Among teens aged 15-17 who have never had sexual intercourse, 94 percent said that concern about pregnancy influenced their decision to wait. Similar numbers said that concern about HIV/AIDS (92%), other STDs (92%) and feeling ‘too young’ (91%) contributed to their choice” (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2005). On the other hand, some people argue that single-sex schools have problems greater than the problems that could occur in mixed schools where a lot of gays and lesbian couple will be found. However, this problem starts basically from students’ houses because it results from emotional gaps or missing something in their lives. In addition, there are a few students who are gays or lesbians compared to the mixed schools cases. For this reason, the single-sex school is better than mixed schools from this aspect.

            To sum up, single-sex schools are better than mixed schools for students for various reasons why the students should be taught separately instead of together. First of all, the benefits those girls can gain from being with their own sex in same classroom. Because most girls are shy, they will be more active and confident if they are with their sex. The second reason is the distraction that will occur in the classroom between two genders. Boy and girls are influenced by each other, so they will distract each other from focusing in the class; especially boys. Also, the classroom’s temperature distracts boys and girls from concentrating during the class because of the configuration of the men’s bodies, which burn more calories than women’s bodies. For the reason, it is better to separate them in order to prepare a good environment for both genders. The last reason is the problems that can be found in the mixed schools. The big problem is the pregnancy case. Finally, both schools have benefits, but single-sex schools are more beneficial for student than mixed schools.

Reference List

      1- Jones, E. (2009, November). Single-Sex Schools. Retrieved from

 http://www.idebate.org/debatabase/topic_details.php?topicID=105

2-    Kaiser Family Foundation & Seventeen. (2005). SexSmarts: Virginity and the First Time.

Islamic Art and Roman Art

Essay:

In the previous centuries, there were some civilizations founded, such as the Roman civilization and the Islamic civilization. Both of the Islamic civilization and Roman civilization had created their needs by looking at what their people want. Also, they created them relying on what they had seen in their environment or using what was available in their environment. According to the two articles, which are Glass in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Ancient Art at The Art Institute of Chicago, there is one similarity and one difference. The similar thing between them is the copies of pots, vessels and tools that have survived give us a brief summary about what ancient people had done in the past. Whereas, the difference between the Islamic art and the Roman art is type of art they created.

            The similar thing between the Islamic art and the Roman art is that they left for us copies of what they had done. These copies of pots, vessels or tools give us visual insight into lost works of art celebrated by ancient writer. (Vermeule III. C.C, 1994) Also, because of the materials that the ancient people used are very paucity and unique, it is hard to find the same material nowadays. Therefore, “Without these copies, often carved by talented craftsmen who respected the originals, great sculptors of the fifth and fourth centuries B.C., notably Phidias, Praxiteles, Skopas, and Lysippos, would not be understood as fully as they are today.” (Vermeule III. C.C, 1994) In addition, it is the same for the ancient Islamic civilization that left behind glass, which is now in progress to find out the art-historical development in some regions of the Islamic world.

            The difference between the Islamic art and the Roman art is the products that each civilization created. The glass was the famous product that created in Islamic regions. Their way of making glasses products is very fabulous. Most of the time they add to the glass gold leaf and powdered gold. In addition, the shape, design and the colors are varying from one glass product to another. Also, they use the glass in everything in their life. “All manner of liquids and powders, oils, wine, rosewater, perfumes, spices, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and pigments filled bottles, flasks, jars, and vases made of countless shades of yellow, green, blue, purple, and brown, as well as colorless, glass” (Carboni. S, 2001, p. 28). Moreover, what made the glass products that were created in the Islamic regions reach China, Southeast Asia, Europe and the northern part of Africa is its usage as a prized item of exchange and as a gift. However, in the Roman civilization, people there used marble and bronze to create their products such as statues and coins. Most of their sculptures were inspired by the Greek civilization. So, they were copying what other people before them had done. Because Roman people respect the Greek civilization so much, they copied a lot of famous Greek statues that were made by the Greek sculptors. (Vermeule III. C.C, 1994) In addition, the Roman people put the Greek as an epitome in their lives and in their art. As a result, they made what the Greek had made. They designed the same architectural panels, bronze mirrors. Also, jewelries and even the coffins, but they got famous from carving marbles. They carved the famous people in their empire.

            All in all, every previous civilization has its own secrets. Some of the secrets are ambiguous until now because the unique style that every civilization used is different from others. The Islamic and the Roman art is one of the things that are famous in past ages. The Roman and the Islamic art are similar in one aspect, which are the products that were left or survived. All the products that people nowadays have found talk about great civilizations in the great, ancient centuries. On the other hand, there is a difference between their arts. The materials that are used by both of the civilizations are different. The Roman people used marbles and bronze, but the Muslims used glass and sometimes gold. Also, most of the Roman arts are taken from the Greek. Finally, both of the civilizations have shown a great art for people in the later centuries.

    

Reference List

- Carboni, S. (2001). Glass in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, 59, 28-32.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/3269167

- Vermeule III, C. C. (1994). Ancient Art at The Art Institute of Chicago. Ancient Art at The Art Institute of Chicago, 20, 62-77.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/4112952 .

“So Much More than Plasma and Poison” Critique Essay

Essay

             “So Much More Than Plasma and Poison” is an article written by Natalie Angier who mainly discusses the jellyfish has many things amazing besides poison. However, studies have shown that the jellyfish has a lot of things that the common people do not know. In addition, if people look beyond the jellyfish’s poison, they will find an amazing animal. So, there are many points that the author does not clarify very well by giving evidences, which are how ancient the jellyfish is, the matrix eyes that it has, the nervous system and the secret of the Australian box jellyfish’s attack to humans.

             The jellyfish is one of the animals that people have negative point of views about because of what the jellyfish does to people on the coasts, but the poison of the jellyfish is not always strong. The jellyfish has a gooey body. Also, it shimmers and glows. Moreover, it has an ambiguous round shape because it is difficult to find the head, the heart, the back, the legs and how these things function. The jellyfish is one of the ancient creatures as same as the earliest bony fish; it has appeared before the dinosaurs. Therefore, according to David J. Albert, a jellyfish expert at the Roscoe Bay Marine Biological Laboratory in Vancouver, British Columbia, “Jellyfish are the most ancient multiorgan animal on earth.” (Angier, 2011) Another thing, Dr. Garm and his colleagues found that the jellyfish has 24 eyes and they distinguish four types and two of them are similar to the human’s eyes. Besides its 24 eyes, it has a unique and a little bit complicated nervous system that does not have a clear semblance.  

In addition, the jellyfish has a brain because of the reactions that the jellyfish make when it faces tides and by avoiding fresh water in summer. As a result of that, the jellyfish is equal to dolphins in popularity. Therefore, people can make money from it by moving it to any qualified environment where it can grow easily. There are a variety of sizes that the adult jellyfish has. The size differs from size of a fingernail to 8 to 10 feet wide for the bell and 100 or more feet for the tentacles trailing behind it. (Angier, 2011) This animal stays and feeds itself among the underwater trees. It goes down to the muddy bottom and hides there.

The article is directed to all people; the author starts his introduction by giving his own experiences about jellyfish as a story and that is good because when the article like story, it gets much easier for the reader to recall the information. However, there is something missing at the beginning of the introduction that confuses the reader a little bit. Also, when she mentions that the jellyfish relates to the ancient ages, she does not give any evidences that the jellyfish is roughly twice as old as the earliest bony fish and three times the age of the first dinosaurs. (Angier, 2011) She just throws this information without giving any evidence. Moreover, when she talks about jellyfish’ eyes and that they have a matrix of 24 eyes, she does not specify where they are located. Are these eyes in groups? Or are they separate? These are some questions that come to the reader’s mind especially if s/he does not know anything about the topic. In addition, she discusses the nervous system and he describes it as a wise that the jellyfish lacks any semblance of the central nervous system, but he does not explain why there is a wise on its central nervous system.

Another thing that the author does not demonstrate that why the Australian box jellyfish sometimes attacks humans though it has no intention of eating humans. At the end of the article, there is no conclusion. She does not restate the main points that she mentions in the whole article. Therefore, the reader cannot remember what the author talks in the beginning of this article. The purpose of the conclusion is to make the reader recall what has read.

To sum up, this article demonstrates the beauty of the jellyfish and how people look at the jellyfish as dangerous animal; whereas, it has many things are hidden in and regular people do not know about them. For example, how ancient the jellyfish is and how fabulous its eyes are. Also, it has unusual nervous system. Besides that, the actions, which are resulted from the jellyfish, confirm that it has a brain. When the jellyfish becomes popular, some people start exhibiting it to the public in order to make money because it goes next to the dolphins in popularity. In the end, the author does great job by giving good explanation while some of them are still ambiguous. The missing part at the beginning of the introduction is one point that still unclear. Also, how old the jellyfish is and the how its eyes complicated. The last thing is the purpose of attacking humans by the Australian box jellyfish.

Reference: Angier, N. (2011, June). So Much More Than Plasma and Poison. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/07/science/07jellyfish.html